Define the Following Terms and How Each Relates to Islamic Art Aniconism Faãƒâ§ade Quran

Abstention of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art

Aniconism is the avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic fine art. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in office from the conventionalities that the creation of living forms is God'south prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, information technology uses the give-and-take musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more than explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Twenty-four hours of Judgment.^{[1] [2]} Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and all-encompassing employ of calligraphic, geometric and abstruse floral patterns.

However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face concealed) and other religious figures are constitute in some manuscripts from lands to the east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images equally forbidden.^[1] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of man and animal forms historically flourished in well-nigh all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were frequently stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs. There were episodes of iconoclastic destruction of figurative art, such as the prescript by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 721 CE ordering the destruction of all representational images in his realm.^{[2] [iii]} A number of historians have seen an Islamic influence on the Byzantine iconoclastic movement of the 8th century, though others regard this is as a legend that arose in afterward times in the Byzantine empire.^[4]

Theological views [edit]

The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the delineation of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry.^{[v] [half-dozen]} Interdictions of figurative representation are nowadays in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in whatever full general mode.

Sunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using whatsoever representation of living beings. There are variations between religious madhhab (schools) and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism is common amongst fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are as well often iconoclastic), and less prevalent amongst liberal movements within Islam. Shia and mystical orders also have less stringent views on aniconism. On the private level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith, and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice.

Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material epitome, but touches upon mental representations likewise. Information technology is a problematic issue, discussed past early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented past immaterial attributes, such equally "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "90-ix beautiful names". Muhammad'due south physical appearance, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known as Sirah Rasul Allah. Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages fabricated during dreams.

Titus Burckhardt sums up the role of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics equally follows:

The absenteeism of icons in Islam has not merely a negative but a positive function. By excluding all anthropomorphic images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic fine art aids human being to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul exterior himself, he can remain in his ontological eye where he is both the viceregent (khalîfa) and slave ('abd) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambient which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', even in a relative and provisional manner. Nothing must stand up betwixt man and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; information technology eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an order that expresses equilibrium, quiet and peace.^[7]

In practice [edit]

Religious core [edit]

In practice, the cadre of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for case mysticism, popular piety, or individual devotion showroom significant variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is even more than variable and there are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. Mostly speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in mod times to specific religious contexts. In the past, information technology was enforced only in some times and places.^[8]

Past [edit]

The representation of living beings in Islamic art is not just a modern phenomenon and examples are constitute from the earliest periods of Islamic history. Frescos and reliefs of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Umayyad era, as on the famous Mshatta Facade now in Berlin.^{[9] [10]} The 'Abbasid Palaces at Samarra also independent figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, rock crystal, and other media also bore figural imagery in the medieval era.^[eleven] Figurative miniatures in books occur subsequently in virtually Islamic countries merely somewhat less in Standard arabic-speaking areas. The human figure is fundamental to the Persian miniature and other traditions such equally the Ottoman miniature and Mughal painting.^{[12] [xiii]} The Persian miniature tradition began when Western farsi courts were dominated past Sunnis, but continued after the Shia Safavid dynasty took power. The Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp I of Persia began his reign as a great patron and apprentice artist himself, but turned confronting painting and other forbidden activities later on a religious midlife crisis.^[14]

The Pisa Griffin, probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andalus, is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.

The abstention of idolatry is the principal business of the restrictions on images, and equally a upshot, the traditional form for the religious cult paradigm, the gratuitous-standing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding man sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syrian arab republic and in Seljuk Islamic republic of iran.^[15] The Pisa Griffin, of a mythical beast and designed to spout h2o for a fountain, is the largest case, at three feet tall in bronze, and probably only survives because it was taken equally haul by the urban center of Pisa in the Heart Ages.^[16] Like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra, it probably came from Al-Andalus. The griffin and lions cannot easily be regarded as potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is truthful of modest decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on Islamic pottery, both of which are relatively mutual.^[17] In particular hunting scenes of humans and animals were pop, and presumably regarded as conspicuously having no religious function. The figures in miniatures were, until the belatedly 16th century, always numerous in each prototype, minor (typically only an inch or two high), and showing the central figures at roughly the aforementioned size as the attendants and servants who are usually too shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were near often the classics of Persian poetry and historical chronicles.

The hadith show some concessions for context, every bit with the dolls, and condemn most strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.^[18] A long tradition of prefaces to muraqqas sought to justify the creation of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such every bit comparing God to an artist.^[19]

Miniature painting was mostly patronized by the court circle and is a private form of fine art; the possessor chooses whom to show a book or muraqqa (album). But wall-paintings with large figures were constitute in early Islam, and in Safavid and later Persia, especially from the 17th century, but were always rare in the Arabic-speaking world. Such paintings are as well mainly constitute in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though non unknown, in Iran in that location are fifty-fifty some in mosques.

Eschewing figural representation, ornamentation in Islamic sacred architecture relies chiefly on arabesque and geometrical patterns.

Early on examples of non-figural representation in Islamic sacred compages are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Rock use crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants as an invocation of the Quranic description of heaven.^[xx] Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which describe an idyllic cityscape are likewise meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.^[20]

The issue of aniconism has posed problems in the modern globe, particularly as technologies like television set adult in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a television service in Saudi arabia, every bit they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.^[21] The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of King Faisal'south nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,^[22] was killed in a police shootout in August 1965 afterward he led an assault on one of the new television stations.^[23]

Nowadays [edit]

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized past noteworthy differences.^[24] Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the individual do good or the dichotomy between reality and discourse.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which practice nowadays still and moving representations of living beings) accept an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, every bit in the case of Al Jazeera, with a global attain, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes^{[25] [26]} and coins, in streets and offices (e.thousand. presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, al-Assad or Hezbollah'south Nasrallah and Ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to exist found in nigh Muslim countries (Saddam Hussein'due south are infamous^[27]), as well as art schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is stylish to gloat and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The Taliban move in Transitional islamic state of afghanistan banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such as the Buddhas of Bamiyan, generally tolerated by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. Nevertheless, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography^[28]).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal ("likenesses") and tin be bought effectually shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.^[29] In Islamic republic of pakistan, Republic of india and Bangladesh portraits of Ali tin exist institute on notoriously ornate trucks,^[xxx] buses and rickshaws.^[31] Opposite to the Sunni tradition, a photographic motion-picture show of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs.^{[32] [33]} A marvel in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad equally a young boy.^[34] The 1000 Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the delineation of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if information technology is made with the utmost respect.^[35]

Circumvention methods [edit]

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent specially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a fiery halo hiding his face, head, or whole torso, and from nigh 1500 is often shown with a veiled face up.^[36] Members of his firsthand family and other prophets may be treated in the same way. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered past a veil or all humans take a stroke drawn over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that it is not something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to brand what is depicted incommunicable to live in reality (equally but impossible in reality is still often frowned upon or banned, such as representations of comic book characters or unicorns, although exceptions do exist). Few portraits were attempted, and the ability to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic art until the Mughal tradition began in the belatedly 15th century, although in both Mughal India and Ottoman Turkey portraits of the ruler then became very popular in court circles.^[37]

Islamic calligraphy has besides displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are  anthropomorphic and zoomorphic calligrams.^[38] Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, particularly in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a function like to figurative art.^[39] When on paper, Islamic calligraphy is often seen with elaborate frames of Ottoman illumination.^[39] Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the name of Muhammad, the Hilya (a tablet that embodies the clarification of Muhammad'southward physical appearance), multiple names of God in Islam, and the tughra (a calligraphic version of the name of an Ottoman sultan).^{[40] [41]}

Causes [edit]

Hadith and exegesis examples [edit]

During its early days, aniconism in Islam was intended every bit a measure out confronting idolatry, particularly against the statues worshipped past pagans. All hadith presented in this section are Sunni, not Shia.

Narrated Aisha:
The wife of the Prophet purchased a absorber with pictures of animals on it for the Prophet to sit on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying the makers would be punished on the Mean solar day of Resurrection when God would ask them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith as well reports that the Prophet said that the angels would non enter a house where at that place are pictures.

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Upon the Prophet'southward arrival from a armed services expedition, a curtain covering Aisha'due south store-room was raised by the blowing wind, uncovering her dolls. Among them, the Prophet saw a horse with two wings made of rags and asked his wife what was on the horse. Aisha responded that it was two wings. He asked: A horse with two wings? Aisha and then asked if the Prophet had not heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his molar teeth were seen.

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[43],
Reference (English Book) Volume 42, Hadith 4914
Reference (Standard arabic Volume) Book 43, Hadith 160

Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:
Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to consume with them. Upon the Prophet's inflow, he turned away after seeing figural defunction hanging at the cease of the house. Ali followed the Prophet to ask what had turned him dorsum. The Prophet stated that it is unfitting for him or any Prophet to enter a dwelling house decorated [with figural imagery].

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[44],
Reference (English Book) Book 27, Hadith 3746
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 28, Hadith 20

Narrated 'Aisha:
Upon the arrival of the Prophet from a journeying, he saw and tore a pall with pictures his married woman had placed over the door of a chamber. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who attempt to make the like of Allah'due south creations will receive the severest punishment on the Solar day of Resurrection.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[45],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 838
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6019

To bear witness the superiority of the monotheist religion, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Kaaba. He also removed paintings that were cursing to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the building.^[46] The hadith beneath emphasizes that aniconism depends non only on what, simply also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas:
The Prophet refused to enter the Ka'ba with idols in it and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael belongings arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, "May Allah ruin the infidels for the false portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Ka'ba and left without prayer therein.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[47],
Reference (English Book) Vol. v, Volume 59, Hadith 584
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 64, Hadith 4333

Muslim b. Subaih reported being in a firm with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the most grievously tormented people on the Day of Resurrection would exist the painters of pictures. Later on this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the last one existence Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for one like himself who paints pictures. Ibn 'Abbas narrated to the person the Prophet's sayings in which all painters who brand pictures would be punished in the burn down of Hell and the soul will be breathed in every picture prepared past him. Only pictures of paintings of copse and lifeless things should be allowed.

Although pagans in Muhammad'southward times also worshiped copse and stones, Muhammad opposed just images of animated beings — humans and animals —, as reported by the hadith. Subsequently, geometrical ornamentation became a sophisticated fine art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan:
Said bin Abu Al-Hasan narrates a conversation between a panicked man who makes his living by making pictures with Ibn 'Abbas. Ibn 'Abbas relays the message heard from the Prophet that whoever makes a picture will be endlessly punished by Allah until he is able to put life into it - though he alleged that would never be possible. The Hadith reports Ibn 'Abbas further advised the panicked man to make pictures of trees and any other inanimate objects.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[49],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 3, Volume 34, Hadith 428
Reference (Arabic Volume) Volume 34, Hadith 172

A'isha reported: The Prophet's wife describes owning a curtain with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the curtain to be changed, for when he entered the room it brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes also having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did not command to be torn.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[fifty],
Reference (English language Volume) Book 24, Hadith 5255
Reference (Standard arabic Volume) Book 38, Hadith 5643

Aisha describes the Prophet fierce a curtain with portraits on information technology every bit soon as he saw it. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the most grievous torment from the Paw of Allah on the Twenty-four hour period of Resurrection would be for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[51],
Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5261
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5650

Muhammad as well warned his followers of dying among people that built places of worship at graves and placed pictures in it (i.eastward. Christians).

Narrated 'Aisha:
When the Prophet became sick, amongst his wives there was talk of a church in Ethiopia with descriptions of its beauty and pictures it contained. The Hadith reports the Prophet saying the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the death of a pious homo amongst them, make a place of worship at his grave and create pictures in information technology.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[52],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. 2, Volume 23, Hadith 425
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Book 23, Hadith 425

Muhammad made it very clear that angels do not similar pictures.

Narrated Abu Talha:
The Prophet said that the angels do not enter houses where in that location are pictures. The sub-narrator Busr describes having visited Zaid who became ill, then witnessing a pall hung at his door with a picture on it that he had spoken most two days prior to becoming sick.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[53],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. vii, Book 72, Hadith 841
Reference (Standard arabic Volume) Book 77, Hadith 6023

Narrated Salim's male parent:
Upon Gabriel's delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they do not enter a place in which at that place is a film or a dog

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[54],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 843
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Volume 77, Hadith 6026

See likewise [edit]

• Aniconism in Christianity
• Aniconism in Judaism
• Taghut
• Censorship by religion
• Censorship in Islamic societies
• Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia
• Devastation of cultural heritage by ISIL
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Yazid Two, an Umayyad caliph who issued an iconoclastic edict in 721 CE
• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Prototype veneration

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know virtually Islam (second ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art". The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
3. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Globe since the Middle Ages. Germany: Campus Verlag. p. 42.
4. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Heart Ages. Germany: Campus Verlag. pp. 55–60.
5. ^ Esposito, John Fifty. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know well-nigh Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN9780199794133.
6. ^ Quran 5:87–92, 21:51–52
7. ^ Titus Burckhardt (1 October 1987). Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional science & sacred art. SUNY Press. p. 223. ISBN978-0-88706-684-ix . Retrieved 12 December 2011.
8. ^ Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. The Praiseworthy One : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images. Bloomington, Indiana, USA. ISBN 978-0-253-02526-5. OCLC 1083783078.
9. ^ Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree BooksArchived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
10. ^ Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Auto
11. ^ Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between East and Westward: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Structure of Abbasid Princely Culture". Muqarnas Online. 25 (1): 107–132. doi:ten.1163/22118993_02501005. ISSN 0732-2992.
12. ^ Reza Abbasi Museum Archived September 27, 2016, at the Wayback Motorcar
13. ^ "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum Archived Nov xx, 2008, at the Wayback Automobile
14. ^ Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University. p. 190.
15. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. Due south Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Swell Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 40-47
16. ^ Mack, p. iii Archived June ten, 2016, at the Wayback Car
17. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Courtroom and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121
18. ^ The prototype debate : figural representation in Islam and across the globe. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. ISBN 978-1-909942-34-9. OCLC 1061820255.
19. ^ Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Prototype: The Writing of Art History in Sixteenth-Century Islamic republic of iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, v. 9. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.
20. ^ ^{a b} George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Fine art. Ability, Patronage, and Memory in Early Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.
21. ^ Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Television". Journal of Broadcasting. 15 (1).
22. ^ R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World. Syracuse University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
23. ^ "Saudi Time Bomb?". Frontline PBS.
24. ^ See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam
25. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Kingdom of saudi arabia: Oil Refinery Archived July twenty, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
26. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ David Zucchino "U.S. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004 Archived March iii, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
28. ^ Jon Lee Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (UK), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-5-1.
29. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shi'ism - A Religion of Protest. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Printing. pp. 29–xxx.
30. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan Archived October 8, 2014, at the Wayback Automobile
31. ^ The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh Archived Oct 21, 2009, at the Wayback Motorcar
32. ^ Picture of Golestan due east Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Islamic republic of iran Archived October 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at Best Iran Travel.com Archived Apr 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
34. ^ Photography past Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): cover, p. 9. dead link Archived May 18, 2006, at the Wayback Motorcar . Historical context described in (in French) Patricia Briel, letemps.ch, 22 Feb 2006. Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune ^{[ dead link ]}
35. ^ K Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 Feb 2006) (in Arabic) ^{[ permanent dead link ]} , "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-29 . {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived re-create as championship (link)
36. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "Between LOGOS ( KALIMA ) AND LIGHT ( NŪR ): REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN ISLAMIC PAINTING." Muqarnas, vol. 26, 2009, pp. 229–262. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/27811142. Accessed 12 Nov. 2020.
37. ^ Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Courtroom / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana University Press, 2014. p.254
38. ^ Robinson, Francis. Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, 1992, pp. 100–103. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/26196535. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
39. ^ ^{a b} FETVACI, EMINE. "THE ALBUM OF AHMED I." Ars Orientalis, vol. 42, 2012, pp. 127–138. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43489770. Accessed thirteen Nov. 2020
40. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Hilya (Votive Tablet)." Accessed Dec 9, 2020. https://www.metmuseum.org/fine art/drove/search/447313.
41. ^ Grabar, Oleg. "An Exhibition of High Ottoman Fine art." Muqarnas, vol. 6, 1989, pp. 1–eleven. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1602275. Accessed 13 November. 2020.
42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:318, 7:62:110
43. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4914
44. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 27:3746
45. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:838
46. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Printing. p. 552. ISBN978-0-19-636033-1 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 .
47. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, v:59:584
48. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5272
49. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:428
50. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5255
51. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5261
52. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 2:23:425
53. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, vii:72:841
54. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, vii:72:843

References [edit]

General [edit]

• Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-viii.

Islam [edit]

• Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Formation of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-7
• Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art", V Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-5 [1]
• Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, Fifty'image dans le monde arabe [The epitome in the Arab world], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN two-271-05305-6 (in French)
• Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. (in German)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam

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